14.2 - Internet of Things

 14.2 - Internet of things 

 

Key Terms: 

• Internet of things (IoT) - A system of connected devices that use unique identifiers to send data over a network without the need for human interaction. 
• Internet of everything (IoE) - Another name for IoT. 
• Industrial internet of things (IIoT) - Internet of things systems in the industrial sector. 
• Near-field communication (NFC) - A simple and low energy protocol using magnetic field induction to communicate with mobile and standard electronic devices. 
• Bluetooth low energy (BLE) - Also known as Bluetooth smart, it is a wireless personal area network. 
• Light-Fidelity (Li-Fi) - A visible light communications system. It uses bulbs to transfer data at high speeds of 224Gigabits per second. 
• Quick Response (QR) - Two dimensional tags that are machine readable and often attached to products to give the customer information. 
• HaLow – A branch of Wi-Fi with extended range. 
• LTE-Advanced – A mobile communication that provides higher capacity than LTE. 
• LoRaWAN – A low power wide area network for IoT devices. 
• Sigfox – A global network operator. 
• Neul – A cloud-based solution that offers an end-to-end pipe. 
• Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) - A long range protocol that uses small dish antennas to transfer broadband and narrowband data. 
• Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) - A long range protocol that uses coaxial cables to provide high-defi videos of a home and other content related to it. 
• Power-line Communication (PLC) - A long range protocol that uses electrical wires to transmit power and data from one point to another. 
• Broadband over power lines (BLP) - A sector of PLC. 
• RIOT – A free, open-source operating system for IoT. 
• ARM mbed – An operating system for IoT devices. 
• RealSense OS X – An operating system for IoT devices. 
• Real-time operating system (RTOS) - A real-time operating system designed to function without buffer delays. 
• Brillo – An android-based embedded OS for IoT. 
• Contiki – An open-source operating system for IoT. 
• Zephyr – An operating system for IoT devices. 
• Apache Mynewt – A real time, modular operating system for IoT devices. 
• Two-factor authentication (2FA) - An authentication standard that strengthens IoT device security. 
• Heating, ventilation, air and conditioning (HVAC) - Different systems and machines to provide comfort through environmental regulation in most indoor settings. 
• Censys – A search engine for IoT devices. 
• Thingful – A search engine for IoT devices. 
• Foren6 – A non-intrusive 6LoWPAN network analysis tool. 
• Zniffer – A development tool that captures z-wave communication signals and presents them in a GUI. 
• Cloudshark – A capture management system. 
• RFCrack – An RF test bench. 
• KillerBee – A Python-based tool. 
• SquashFS/CramFS - A Linux compressed read-only file system. 
• ZMap – A network scanner. 
• ZGrab – A Go-based application layer scanner. 
• BeSTORM – A tool that performs exhaustive analysis. 

 

IoT Devices 

Some IoT device examples are heart rate monitors, kitchen appliances, temperature meters, etc... Anything able to send data over a network without human interaction can be considered an IoT device. 

 

IoT Systems 

IoT devices are built with sensors that can capture data. These sensors can be cameras, GPS, temperature readings, etc... The sensors on the device collect data and send it to the cloud. To do this, IoT devices use a gateway system such as cellular, satellite, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LPWAN or ethernet. Each gateway system offers different advantages and disadvantages such as bandwidth and power consumption. Once the data reaches the cloud, it is analysed and processed. Once this has happened, the data is sent back to a user interface where the user has a chance to view the data. Usually, IoT devices are configured by the user to execute specific commands at certain times. For example, a digital thermostat may raise the temperature when it gets below 20°C. 

 

IoT Architecture 

There are 5 layers to IoT architecture: 

• Edge technology – This layer includes all the hardware in an IoT system. This includes sensors, readers, tags and devices. This layer is the primary data centre where data is recorded from using the hardware built into the device. 
• Access gateway – This layer gathers the information from the edge technology layer and compresses it for optimal analysis. This layer takes care of message routing, identification and subscribing. 
• Internet – This layer is the bridge between IoT devices. It allows IoT devices to connect and communicate with each other and other systems such as the cloud. The data generated from previous layers is now sent across the internet to the cloud server. 
• Middleware – This layer processes the data when it reaches the cloud. This layer acts as the interface between the hardware and application layers. 
• Application – This layer is the final layer in the IoT architecture. Its job is to deliver the data collected from the cloud and present it to the end user in a structured and organised way. 

 

IoT Protocols 

Currently, IoT uses standard networking protocols to communicate and send data. These protocols are categorised into short-range, medium-range, long-range and wired. Some short-range protocols include near-field communication (NFC) and radio frequency identification (RFID) which are both low energy and simple protocols. RFID uses two-way radio transmitters and receivers to read and send data across a short distance. NFC uses magnetic field induction to communicate between mobile and standard electronic devices. Some medium-range protocols include HaLow and LTE-Advanced. HaLow is a version of Wi-Fi with extended range. It is mostly used in rural areas due to its low cost and power. LTE-Advanced is a mobile communication. It makes LTE better due to its low capacity for data rate, range and efficiency. Some long-range protocols LoRaWAN, Sigfox and Neul. LoRaWAN stands for long-range wide area network, and it's used with mobile connections, industrial machine-to-machine communication and secure two-way communications. Sigfox is good for devices with low battery life which needs to transfer low-level data. Neul uses a small part of the TV white space spectrum to deliver high-quality, high-power and high-coverage networks at a low cost. Some wired protocols are ethernet, MoCa and PLC. Ethernet is used in LANs to send data across wired connections. MoCa uses coaxial cables to deliver high quality videos of a home and other content related to it. PLC uses electrical wires to transfer power and data from one point to another. 

 

IoT Operating Systems 

IoT operating systems are needed to provide connectivity, usability and interoperability with IoT devices. There are lots of IoT operating systems available, some of which are: RIOT OS, which is a low resource, energy efficient operating system; ARM mbed OS, which is often used with low powered devices like wearable technology; RealSense OS X which is used in Intel’s sensing technology; Nucleus and Integrity RTOS which are both used for aerospace, industrial and automotive devices; Brillo which is used for low-end devices; Contiki which is used for low-power wireless devices; Zephyr which is used for low-power and resource constrained devices and Ubuntu Core which is used for drones and robotics. 

 

IoT Communication Models 

There are 4 communication models used in IoT systems: 

• Device-to-device – Designed for small data transmissions at low data rates. This can include thermostats, door locks, lights, cameras, etc... 
• Device-to-cloud – This communication model means that the devices connect with the cloud instead of directly with the end user. They use protocols such as Wi-Fi, ethernet and cellular. 
• Device-to-gateway – This communication model means that the IoT device doesn't connect with the cloud or the end user. Instead, it interacts with an intermediatory device called a gateway which then communicates with the cloud or the end user. 
• Back-end data-sharing – This model is an expanded version of the device-to-cloud model. It means that the data is sent to the cloud however an authenticated third-party may be able to access the data. 

 

IoT Security Threats 

Most IoT devices lack the most basic security practices and defences that are required to protect all the data being gathered. IoT device firmware is also sometimes difficult to update and therefore may leave open vulnerabilities that haven’t been patched. Most IoT manufacturers are more focused in competing with other companies that they don’t upgrade their security enough for it to be secure. Some companies also discontinue update support of IoT devices once they start working on another product. 

 

IoT Vulnerabilities 

Many IoT devices use embedded servers which are vulnerable to ransomware attacks and lack secure authentication. Most of the time, IoT devices are hardcoded with weak credentials which are easily brute forced or (if they are default) can be found through research. The Mirai botnet found vulnerable IoT devices with default or weak passwords which it used to launch DDoS attacks across the internet, devastating businesses and servers in 2016. Many IoT devices also lack encryption and send data in clear text through open ports. This is a huge risk for data theft and breaches by hackers. 

 

IoT Attacks 

A common IoT attack is the DDoS attack. This is where a hacker infects IoT devices to create a zombie army in order to launch DDoS attacks across the internet. HVAC exploitation is another form of IoT attack where HVAC systems are targeted to find sensitive information or take over a network. Ransomware is a type of malware where a hacker utilises encryption to encrypt useful data usually with a requested payment for the user to decrypt their data. Injection can also be used on vulnerable programs and applications to steal data or perform other malicious acts.